Researcher Education and Development Scholarship Conference

Dr Cathal Rogers, Research Culture and Assessment Manager, Dr Jonathan Gledhill, Researcher Development Officer, Dr Sarah Ashworth, Researcher Development Officer, and Dr Amy Smith, Researcher Development Manager. All authors are based at The University of Manchester, UK.

Action Learning Sets (ALS) are a staple of leadership and management courses in UK universities. Participants meet in small groups (typically 6-8 people) and develop realistic actions through supportive questioning and active reflection.

While many leadership programmes use ALS, few evaluate the impact of this distinct from that of the whole leadership programme. Moreover, the effectiveness of ALS in specifically developing leadership skills has not been widely studied, nor their differential impact depending on participants’ career stage and personal characteristics.

This can lead to the routine use of ALS without full consideration of their impact and limitations, or pressure to remove ALS elements of leadership courses due to absence of an evidence base to articulate their impact.

Our research demonstrates that:

• ALS develop a range of leaderships skills and sense of ‘self-leadership’ for most participants. Universities should therefore continue to promote ALS in their leadership programmes.
• Not all participants benefit equally from ALS: colleagues self-identifying as ‘neurodivergent’, while still positive about the usefulness of ALS overall, did not report the same levels of leadership and skills development as neurotypical colleagues.
• While recognised leadership skills (such as listening) are developed through ALS, facilitators play a role in participants’ recognition of these skills as important aspects of leadership.

Action Learning Sets offer boundaried benefits

ALS offer significant benefits for participants, enhancing trust, self-awareness, and reflective learning. Kilbane et all (2022) found that ALS foster trust and authenticity in healthcare leadership, allowing for deeper reflective practice beyond simple problem-solving. Similarly, Walia and Marks-Maran (2014) reported positive outcomes for Health and Social Care leaders, emphasising active listening and solution-oriented dialogue. In academia, Waddington and Jones (2023) integrated ALS with coaching to support women’s leadership, helping participants build confidence and navigate workplace challenges. Guccione and Hutchinson (2021) affirmed ALS’s value for academics, facilitating self-awareness and practical solution development. However, limitations exist: Douglas and Machin (2004) observed dissatisfaction in ALS aimed at organisational change, mainly due to lack of managerial support and rigidity. Gentle (2010) and Stark (2006) noted that organisational morale and context can also hinder ALS effectiveness, especially under internal tensions.

Investigating the benefits further

We examined the impact of ALS in three cohort-based leadership courses offered to research and academic staff at the University of Manchester. These courses included distinct cohorts of postdoctoral researchers and research assistants, research fellows, and ‘mid-career academics’ (namely readers and recently appointed professors). Through a participant survey (51 respondents) and focus groups with five ALS facilitators, we explored:

• What experiences do participants report of ALS? 
• Do experiences vary by career stage, or other differentials such as gender, neurodiversity, or introversion/ extroversion, and what can be learnt from this?
• How useful are ALS as a strategy to embed leadership skills and confidence in academics? 

Our survey did not extend to understanding participants local workplace culture or personal situation, factors which may affect respondents’ appreciation and application of ALS.

Benefit is dependent on preparedness to engage

Overall, respondents provided a favourable view of the usefulness of ALS, on average rating them 7.3 out of 10 (where 10 is ‘extremely useful’). This did not vary significantly between career stage (professors and readers rated lowest at 6.8/10, whilst Fellows rated highest at 7.6/10), gender, or tendency towards introversion or extroversion. The biggest differentiator was the presentation of an issue at the ALS; those who brought an issue to the group found ALS more useful (7.7/10) than those that did not bring an issue (6/10), confirming the benefits of active participation.

76% of respondents reported an increased confidence in ‘taking action’ because of the ALS, with only 7% disagreeing with this sentiment. Participants typically reported applying their learning from ALS with their peers and with those they manage or supervise. They were much less likely to apply these skills ‘upwards’, to more senior colleagues.  

Self-leadership is positively improved for all

Having established the similarity of participants’ view of the usefulness of ALS, we sought to examine their impact on participants’ perceptions of self-leadership. We adopt here the definition of self-leadership used by Bryant and Kazan (2012) as ‘the practice of intentionally influencing your thinking, feelings, and actions towards your objective(s)’, including self-awareness, self-confidence, and self-efficacy. This is an important concept in many of our development courses as a prerequisite for ‘successful’ leadership.

We found that:

• Research Fellows were the career stage that perceived the greatest development of their sense of self-leadership (80% agreeing ALS improved their self-leadership, compared to 50% of readers and professors)
• Men reported a very positive impact on their self-leadership (92% agreeing ALS had developed their self-leadership, compared to 72% of women)
• Respondents self-identifying as ‘neurodivergent’ reported a much lower impact on development of their self-leadership (43% agreeing, compared to 82% of neurotypical participants).
• An individuals’ tendency towards introversion or extroversion appeared to have little impact.

Naturally in a question measuring perceived ‘improvement’, those reporting a lower positive impact on their sense of self-leadership might already feel these attributes were well developed and therefore they had least to learn.

What leadership skills do ALS develop?

We sought to identify what leadership skills participants felt ALS did (or did not) help develop. We provided participants with a predefined list of leadership skills, including the option to define their own, or to say ALS had not developed any of their skills. Notably, only 2% reported no skills development.

We found that:

• The leadership skills most commonly cited were supportive questioning (83%), listening (69%), and active reflection (55%).
• Fellows and professors/readers reported development of similar skills sets. Postdoctoral Researchers were more likely than other groups to report development of their ability to advise others, suggesting they may not have the opportunity to practice these skills as regularly.
• Male participants (92%) reported improved ability to develop supportive questions (compared to 83% of women). Men were also more likely to develop their ability to coach others (58%, compared to 41% of women). Women were marginally more likely than men to report development of their listening skills (72% compared to 67%), and active refection (59% compared to 50%).
• Neurodiversity was the starkest determinant of the impact of ALS on ‘self-leadership’. Neurodivergent participants were  less likely to report skill development of ‘supportive questioning’ (34 percentage points lower), ‘active reflection’ (35 percentage points lower), and ‘when to advise others’ (19 percentage points lower).However, neurodivergent colleagues were more likely to report development of their listening and coaching skills (19 and 32 percentage points higher, respectively).It should be noted that this is a highly diverse group of staff, and indeed very much an ‘artificial’ grouping of participants.

ALS facilitators observed similar skills being developed through ALS (active listening, questioning, self-reflection, empathy). However, they also witnessed other perceived benefits in participants, including increased self-awareness, self-efficacy, self-confidence, and an understanding of their ‘social capital’ which legitimised requests for the same opportunities as their peers.

What can we do next?

Overall, ALS develop leadership skills and foster participants’ sense of empowerment and confidence to take action. As such, researcher developers should advocate for their continued inclusion in leadership programmes for research and academic staff. However, how different groups experience ALS needs further exploration, particularly with regards to neurodivergent participants. Facilitators and course designers should be aware that not all participants will experience and benefit equally from ALS.  Exploration with participants, as part of group contracting, is needed into how ALS can be made to work for all, and what alternative provision could give participants the opportunity to develop and practice their leadership skills.